Why does sympathetic relax bladder

Alongside changes within the brain, spinal, and peripheral neurodegeneration also occurs which may contribute to symptoms. There is also thought to be loss of sympathetic innervation of the bladder neck due to degeneration at the intermediolateral nucleus, resulting in a high incidence of open bladder neck.

This reflects the intimate relationship between the lower urinary tract system and the ANS. Research from the animal literature demonstrates a link between social stress in rats Wood et al. For example, Wood et al. Rats in the social defeat group also demonstrated changes in the pattern of micturition including reduced frequency of voiding and altered voiding pattern voiding in the corner of the cage compared with control animals, which maintained the same number of voiding spots as at the start of the experiment and also continued to void throughout the cage.

This is likely to be in part due to the challenges associated with developing an appropriate and ethical experimental paradigm in humans. Nevertheless, it appears that trauma may have a profound impact on bladder control, particularly childhood trauma.

For example, Durkin et al. Following this, a subset of the surviving children were re-evaluted. There was also a significant increase in aggressive behavior. In a prospective study of female veterans who had returned from active service, Bradley et al. Research into the central organization of autonomic control and bladder control have until now progressed relatively independently.

However, there is clear overlap between supraspinal networks regulating autonomic and bladder function, with implications for the development of lower urinary tract symptoms in disease. All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. We would like to thank Jonathan Owen for his excellent assistance in creating the illustrations. Allen, G. Organization of visceral and limbic connections in the insular cortex of the rat.

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The external sphincter is histologically different from the detrusor and internal sphincter. It is striated muscle. Like skeletal muscle, it's under voluntary control. It receives its innervation from the pudendal nerve, arising from the ventral horns of the sacral cord. During micturition, supraspinal centers block stimulation by the hypogastric and pudendal nerves. This relaxes the internal and external sphincters and removes the sympathetic inhibition of the parasympathetic receptors.

The result is unobstructed passage of urine when the detrusor contracts. The ureters pass between the layers of the detrusor and enter the bladder through the trigone.

The ureters propel urine into the bladder. The bladder passively expands to accept urine. As the bladder expands and intravesicular pressure increases, the ureters are compressed between the layers of muscle, creating a valve mechanism. This valve mechanism limits the backflow of urine.

The normal adult bladder can hold about cc of urine.